Peatland ACTION - Technical Compendium

CAR    Controlled Activities Regulations

DWPA    Drinking Water Protected Areas

PWS    Private Water Supplies

PDR    Permitted Development Rights

CDM    Construction (Design & Management) Regulations

HRA    Habitats Regulations Appraisal

NSA    National Scenic Areas

WLA    Wild Land Areas

1.    Basic Principles 

Many of the restoration techniques discussed in this compendium can be thought of in simple terms as actions which restore the hydrology of a peatland, when it has been affected by drainage and/or alteration to its vegetation and wider surface integrity.  
The height of the water table is fundamental to many of the processes within a peatland.  These processes ultimately lead to either the accumulation and storage of peat (carbon sequestration), or the release of peat, carbon and other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere (Fig 1). Restoring the hydrological characteristics of a peatland to a more natural state (i.e. with a water level that is close to the surface and resilient to external climatic variation, with a low range throughout the year) will help return it to a healthy, peat accumulating, system.

The main contributor to net loss of carbon in peatlands in carbon dioxide (CO₂) wherever the water table has been lowered. In near natural or rewetted peatlands, carbon dioxide pathways are generally net negative to the atmosphere, i.e., the area takes up more CO₂ via photosynthesis and below-ground accumulation than is lost to the atmosphere. In such wetter peatlands, some of this net accumulation is however offset by net losses of methane (CH₄). Other losses of carbon occur through the direct losses of dissolved and particular carbon through water pathways, and the indirect loss of dissolved organic carbon being re-oxidised to contribute to CO₂ production. Direct loss of carbon from the surface peat via erosion is generally only observed where there is a bare peat patch or area. In cases where significant fertilisation and/or liming of peatland has occurred (generally only in intensive grassland or cropland use scenarios) there can also be significant nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions (not shown in the diagram). 
There are instances when restoring a ‘near natural’ water table will be a secondary consideration, mainly when carrying out bare peat restoration. Here the prime aim of restoration is to stabilise an actively eroding area to reduce rates of erosion and peat loss.  The term ‘actively eroding’ refers to where large landscape features such as haggs, gullies and peat pans have formed. It is not always possible to understand what caused these features to form, but as they are contributing to large net losses of carbon on an area basis, it is important to consider stabilising such features.
 
In both instances it is important to understand how water flows over and through a peatland to appreciate the potential impact of different restoration techniques. Water flows into, through and over peatland by different pathways (Fig 2). The rate of flow through these pathways can increase or decrease depending on factors such as weather, peatland condition, slope, peat composition, vegetation composition, local topography and artificial drainage. Table 1 (below) gives a simplified account of the each of the pathways of water flow and mechanism that may increase (+) or decrease (-) the water flow via these pathways.  

It is important to note that restoration is not always necessarily a single-step process, in many scenarios, several phases of restoration work may be required, for example where there are multiple types of degradation features or where the surface is covered with species that are not usually found in peatlands (e.g., trees, shrub or grassland). 

 
Watch video that discusses the importance of Scotland’s peatlands, includes general reference to restoring peatland hydrology.

The following sections give a general overview of the various elements that need to be considered when planning and designing a peatland restoration project application for Peatland ACTION. These sections provide only a general introduction in addition to the specific guidance provided on our webpage for prospective applicants.

3.1    SEPA Best Practice and CAR Licensing 

Peatland restoration can be subject to CAR licencing [The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011 (as amended)] 

Before carrying out any restoration activities, the potential requirement for a SEPA CAR (controlled activities regulations) licence must be considered. SEPA will not normally require authorisation for the creation of an impoundment designed to raise the water levels to restore a degraded wetland or peatland where: 

a)    The activity is carried out in artificial drainage channels or eroded peat (gullies, haggs, or peat pans); AND  

b)    The activity is not associated with an abstraction.  AND 

c)    The impoundment is created in a watercourse less than or equal to 1 m wide 

A CAR licence is therefore required where:  

1.    The normal width of water within the channel before restoration is >1 m (this includes any impounding dam which, by SEPA’s definition, also includes gully bunds).   

2.    Any watercourse (man-made or natural) which appears on a 1:50,000 scale map and is proposed for blocking will also be subject to CAR licencing regardless of the ‘normal’ width of water. 

A sufficiently vegetated, undisturbed, buffer zone (minimum 5 meters to any watercourse) may be required if undertaking ground smoothing/stump flipping.  

Fabric silt traps at key points on receiving watercourses and blocking forestry drains may be required. 

For more information on CAR licence applicant guide and application form visit the SEPA website.

3.2    Scottish Water Drinking Water Catchments and Private Water Supplies 

It is vital that peatland restoration projects do not impact water yield, trigger source water quality deterioration, or cause damage to the water supply and wastewater network infrastructures. 

Scottish Water abstractions / sources are designated as Drinking Water Protected Areas (DWPA) under Article 7 of the Water Framework Directive and include land draining to reservoirs, lochs, rivers, springs and boreholes.  

To exercise due diligence and establish if a peatland restoration project lies within a source water catchment or near SW assets, you must contact the Sustainable Land Management Team in the first instance / planning stages at [email protected] and provide a grid reference, map and overview of the proposal. The Sustainable Land Management Team will verify individual site constraints and advise on required site-specific precautions to protect Scottish Water assets etc.  Additional Scottish Water information can be obtained from the Sustainable Land Management - Scottish Water website.  

In the event of an incident occurring on peatland restoration sites that has potential to affect Scottish Water’s operational capabilities, you must notify Scottish Water immediately and reference the Sustainable Land Management Team. How to Contact Us - Scottish Water. 

In Scotland, private water supplies (PWS) are defined as those that are not provided by Scottish Water. Approximately 3% of the Scottish population uses a PWS for drinking water. All PWSs have to be registered with the applicable local authority environmental health department. Therefore, the relevant authority should be contacted for additional PWS information regarding proposed restoration sites at the planning stages. 

3.3    Peat Stability in Peatland Restoration

Peatland restoration activities can present a trigger for peat instability events such as peat slides and bog bursts.

Whilst these events are relatively rare compared with those reported in Ireland, peatland restoration projects need to be aware of the risks, assess these, and when necessary, adapt the specifications and even the methods employed, to reduce risk.

Potential peat instability is one of a range of issues considered in environmental impact assessment for upland energy generation projections, notably wind farms.

Peatland Action commissioned a report and accompanied protocols which assess the risks of peat instability. 

(see Annex 2 for further information).  

The risks can now be evaluated using both qualitative and quantitative approaches to ensure that appropriate techniques are applied in the context of site and peat conditions.  

The approach taken enables Peatland ACTION officers and other restoration designers, to: 
•    assess baseline stability at a site-scale, 
•    identify ‘modified’ stability given selected restoration groundworks, and;  
•    determine risk based on receptors within, downslope and downstream of proposed restoration sites. Receptors in this context are defined as ecological, e.g., watercourses, species or habitats, or artificial, such as infrastructure, e.g. roads, railways, pipelines. 

Our peat stability risk assessment tool was published in November 2023.
 

3.4    Considerations on Livestock, Wildlife Densities and Muirburn 

Appropriate, light, grazing can help to maintain peatland habitats in good condition. The overall impression of a peatland in good condition is one where the ground is wet enough for you to need to wear wellingtons to walk across even in summer and is too wet for trees and shrubs to grow (with the exception of bog woodland habitat). 

Blanket and raised bog vegetation comprises of a mix of Sphagnum mosses, short heather, cross-leaved heath, cotton grass, amongst other species. Tall heather, shrubs and isolated trees tend to be suppressed and have a stunted growth form in a well-functioning peatland. If there are signs of trampling then this would suggest that the grazing level is too high and we would recommend reducing the grazing level. 

By grazing a bog with appropriately low numbers and types of stock/ wild herbivores, tall heather, shrubs and rushes will be lightly browsed, which will keep light penetration to the moss layer high enough, allowing Sphagnum and other mosses to grow optimally. Fen vegetation is dominated by sedges and mosses. Light grazing of fens similarly may help to keep the landscape open and reduce potentially invasive tree and scrub species. See Annex 1 for more detailed documents on bog and fen management. 

Key guidance on our website documents

• Information on grazing densities
• Information on deer densities (coming soon)
• The connection between peat and deer management a case study.
• The Muirburn Code

Check for updates on muirburn on the NatureScot website (coming soon). 

3.5    Considerations on protected areas 

Peatland restoration improves peatland condition and often brings wider benefits for nature, water and landscapes. It can however be a disruptive activity, causing temporary damage to land and indirect and/or temporary disturbance to wildlife. At the design stage of any project, potential impacts on habitats, species and landscapes need to be considered, no matter where the project is located, and these impacts mitigated for as best as possible. For those projects, which have the potential to impact on the features of a designated site, there are formal processes that need to be worked through to ensure potential impacts are fully assessed and mitigated for if necessary.   

 The main designations that need to be considered are:  
•    Sites of Special Scientific Interest 
•    Special Areas of Conservation  
•    Special Protection Areas  
•    Landscape designations - National Scenic Areas and Wild Land Areas  
  
 

Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)  

SSSIs are those areas of land and water that we consider best represent our natural heritage in terms of their flora, fauna, geology, or geomorphology. Scotland has 1,422 SSSIs, covering around 1,011,000 hectares or 12.6% of Scotland’s land area. 

When undertaking peatland restoration on or adjacent to an SSSI it is likely, given the typical nature of restoration work, that the project will require consent from NatureScot to proceed. Each SSSI has a list of Operations Requiring Consent associated with it; these operations have the potential to damage the features of the site. If any are required to be undertaken as part of the restoration then consent from NatureScot must be sought and received prior to work commencing. For more information about SSSI’s and the consent process please visit the NatureScot website. 

Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) and Special Protection Areas (SPA)  

As a suite of sites, SACs and SPAs form a network of protected areas that stretch across the European Union and the UK. They are known as European Sites. SACs protect one or more special habitats and/or species. SPAs protect one or more rare, threatened or vulnerable bird species. 

When undertaking peatland restoration on or adjacent to a European Site, potential impacts need to be assessed as per Habitats Regulations.  The Habitat Regulations require that any plan or project that may damage a European site is assessed and it may only go ahead if certain strict conditions are met. This process is known as a Habitats Regulations Appraisal (HRA). All restoration plans which might impact on a European Site need to go through this process. 

For more information about European Sites and the HRA process please visit the NatureScot website.  

Note that many SSSIs are also designated as European sites, whether as Special Areas of Conservation or Special Protection Areas or both, giving these areas multiple designations.  
 

National Scenic Areas (NSA) and Wild Land Areas (WLA) 

NSAs and WLAs are a network of site across Scotland recognised for their nationally important landscapes. Whilst peatland restoration projects often result in long term improvements to these landscapes, restoration works can have an impact. Most restoration techniques disappear into the landscape over time so any impact they have is generally short term. If projects have certain elements, such tracks and fencing, these can have longer term impacts. 

All potential impacts need be considered at the design stage. NatureScot have produced guidance, Peatland restoration projects in protected landscapes, to help project designers to plan projects in a way that will minimise any possible impacts. 

  
Where to find more information about Scotland’s designated sites? 

NatureScot’s SiteLink is an online map-based tool which can be used to check whether a project is located within or close to a designated site. Site details e.g., site features, citation, lists of Operations Requiring Consent can also be accessed there.  

3.6 Considerations Regarding Species Protection 

All peatland restoration work needs to consider the potential effects on Scotland’s wildlife.  Restoration work needs to ensure that no offenses in relation to disturbance, killing or taking of wild birds, other animals and to the survival of protected plants & fungi are committed. Some offences are specific and others more general. For more information about the relevant pieces of legislation pertaining to species protection see our species licensing legislation web page.

More detail about Scotland’s protected species and the offences that must be avoided when carrying out peatland restoration is available in our handy protected species A to Z guide

Although the default position is that working during the bird breeding season should be avoided, it may be possible in some circumstances to carry out restoration work inside the bird breeding season. Working inside the Bird Breeding Season for Peatland ACTION-supported projects guidance set out a protocol that all parties involved in peatland restoration are required to follow to ensure that they stay within the constraints of the law.   

Similarly, measures to avoid disturbance to e.g., otters or reptiles may need to be implemented during restoration works. Our team can advise on these aspects. 

3.7    Permitted development rights and Prior Notification to Local Authorities 

On 1 April 2020 The Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development and Use Classes) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2020 introduced Class (20A), which specifies permitted development rights (PDR) for peatland restoration projects.   

Permitted development rights remove the need to apply for planning permission where proposals comply with the terms of the rights. Unlike applications for planning permission and other types of permission, prior notification is a procedure where, in this instance, the ‘restorer’ (i.e., those pursuing peatland restoration projects) must tell the planning authority about their proposals before taking advantage of permitted development rights. The result will be a decision that ‘Prior Approval’ is or is not needed. The intention is that proposals with no obvious risk of any negative impacts should be allowed to proceed without further consideration.  

Class 20A grants planning permission for the carrying out of works on peatland for the restoration of that peatland. This includes works for the stabilisation, revegetation and re-profiling of bare peat and related drainage works, and the extraction of peat from within a peatland site for the sole purpose of the use of such peat in the restoration of peatland within that peatland site.  

The prior notification/prior approval (PN/PA) process is a two-stage process which allows a planning authority to consider whether a proposal requires closer scrutiny and approval of some aspects of a proposal (in this case a peatland restoration scheme, see below) which is subject to PDR. This process must be completed before the restoration works can begin.  

Firstly, the restorer needs to seek a view from the planning authority as to whether the authority's prior approval is required – the prior notification stage. In doing so, the restorer must submit:  

(i) a peatland restoration scheme (see below),  
(ii) a map showing the location of the peatland site to be restored,  
(iii) the relevant fee required to be paid.  

Once the Peatland Restoration Scheme (PRS) is submitted, the planning authority has 28 days to give a view on the need for prior approval. If a decision has not been issued within the 28 days, approval is deemed granted and the proposal can proceed. 
 

Peatland Restoration Scheme  

This refers to the production and submission of a scheme (plan) that sets out the  restoration activities within an area of peatland identified by the scheme, and includes details in respect of any measures to mitigate:  

• impacts of the proposed development on archaeology,  
• the risk of contamination or flooding as a result of the development on the peatland site,  
• the impacts of the proposed development on soil, and  
• the removal, felling, lopping or topping of any trees,  

In addition to the above, the PRS should include the date, or latest date by when restoration works will be completed on the peatland site; and information on any engagement with regard to funding under Peatland ACTION or registration under the Peatland Code, in order to assist the planning authority's decision making.  

More information on the Annex J (which refers specifically to Peatland restoration) of the amendment order.

3.8    Assessment of impacts on scheduled monuments or archaeological remains  

Scotland has a rich historic environment both above and below ground. Peatlands are of enhanced historic environment significance because of the nature of the archaeological resource they may contain and owing to the unique preservation qualities of the peat. 

Peatland restoration is taking place at the scale of thousands of hectares per year and is spread across the entire country often in remote locations. Despite the significant historic environment record held for Scotland we do not have a detailed understanding of all interest in all places. Restoration work has the potential to impact on these interests and those involved in designing and delivering projects need to consider potential impacts. In addition to possible negative impacts, restoration projects also have the potential to identify new interests and help to protect them.  

Ensuring we adequately consider these interests are built into the permitted development prior notification process. To help with this the Association of Local Government Archaeologists have published guidance on how to assess sites. It sets out an informed procedure to secure the protection of heritage and historic environment features within peatland restoration projects from the design stage through to the project delivery stage.  

Peatland restoration and the historic environment guidance note. 

3.9 Utilities 

To ensure on site health and safety and to avoid risk of damage to any infrastructure, a search for utilities that may be located either on or down slope/catchment of the planned restoration site and access routes must be undertaken. Typically, direct impacts on utilities can be caused by machinery during excavation. However, consideration should also be given to the risk that large restoration projects, that have the potential to create a change in flood risk, can have on surrounding infrastructure.

The search should check for both over ground and underground utilities.   Any planned new infrastructure on, or in the vicinity of, the area to be restored should be identified during the projects development phase.

Typical over ground utilities are:

• Electricity transmission or distribution lines
• On-shore electricity generation infrastructure
• Telecommunication lines

Typical underground utilities include:

• Water supply and sewer infrastructure, including pipelines (this should include consideration of off-grid domestic supplies as well as Scottish Water infrastructure)
• Gas pipelines
• Electricity transmission and distribution lines
• Telecommunication and data cables

Over ground utilities are plain to see so a site visit will identify these. Electricity-related infrastructure in place is also marked on Ordnance Survey Maps which can be used to highlight the hazard when mapping proposed restoration works and associated access routes. Any planned new infrastructure on the area to be restored should be identified during the projects development phase.

The route of underground pipelines are in some cases e.g. gas pipelines identified through a series of above ground markers. Other underground utilities are not marked as clearly in all cases. Individual utility network companies can be contacted for information on potential assets they may have in the area. There are also online searches that can be used to search for multiple utilities in an area.

The possibility of future infrastructure across the site e.g. to support on-shore wind should be considered at the project development stage in discussion with land owners and local Planning Authorities.

Utility providers in Scotland

The following hyperlinks take you to the web page of each utility network provider which explains how to find out information about the network in the area you are working.

• Water and Sewers - Scottish Water
• Gas - Scottish Gas Network 
• Electricity - SP Energy Networks
• Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks
• Telecommunications - Openreach 

For projects that have potential to affect utilities in England, the Peatland ACTION officer would be able to advise on contacts with relevant utilities.

3.10 Health and Safety in Peatland Restoration 

Peatland restoration is an inherently dangerous activity, often carried out in remote areas, using heavy machinery, on difficult terrain. It is also classed as a form of construction, and therefore requires compliance with the Construction (Design & Management) Regulations 2015 or “CDM (2015).” 

Peatland ACTION and all of the delivery partners take health and safety very seriously. Achieving programme-wide compliance with the CDM (2015) regulations helps to ensure the safe working of all involved. All participants in the development, design and delivery of a restoration project have a responsibility in ensuring safe and effective work takes place on the ground. Key duty holders must be appointed, and specific documents produced at different stages of the restoration project.  

More information on the CDM (2015) regulations in peatland restoration

Guidance on Artificial drains

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

1 Peat dams

2 Plastic piling dams

3 Wooden and composite dams

4 Drain re-profiling in combination with drain blocking  

5 Wave dams 

6 Zipping / zippering

Guidance on Bunding interventions above and below ground

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

5.1 Deep Bunding

5.2 Surface Bunding

Guidance on Gully and Bare peat restoration: Flow management

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

1. Using surface bunds in gullies

2. Stone dams

Guidance on Gully and Bare Peat Restoration: Stabilisation and Revegetation

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

7.1 Hag / Gully / Peat bank / reprofiling

7.2 Mulching

7.3 Textiles

7.4 Whole turving

7.5 Borrow pits

7.6 Transplanting propagules

7.7 Seeding

Guidance on Forest-to-Bog restoration 

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

8.1 Tree harvesting

8.2 Tree Mulching [to be updated coming soon]

8.3 Furrow blocking

8.4 Ground smoothing

Guidance on Scrub removal

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

9.1 Removing scrub from peatlands

Guidance on Track Removal or Reinstatement

Included in this series are the following key techniques:

10.1 Track Removal or Reinstatement

IUCN Conserving Bogs; The Management Handbook

Additional resources for the Peatland ACTION programme and further information on peatlands, their management following peatland restoration, data collected through the duration of the project and case studies are available on the NatureScot Peatland ACTION webpages.

The Peatland ACTION YouTube playlist also showcases additional restoration videos for specific techniques, which may be useful to anyone interested in carrying out restoration.

Other great sources of information can be found via the Yorkshire Peat Partnership, the IUCN UK Peatland Programme and the International Mire Conservation Group

A key observation made in Peatland ACTION is that landslides in peat are relatively rare occurrences in Scotland, given the extensive peat cover. A second key observation, derived from an updated peat landslide database held by Dr Andy Mills, is that peat landslides are often spatially clustered, i.e., they occur on the same hillslopes as previous failures.  

This implies that if an area on a peatland has already experienced peat instability, there is a higher likelihood of recurrence than in nearby areas without evidence of peat land-sliding. This is logical, since there are likely to be intrinsic physical and hydrological properties that make some peat more susceptible to landslides than others. 

Landslides are generally considered to occur in response to long term preconditioning factors and triggers. Preconditioning factors reduce the stability of a slope (Table 2) while triggers (Table 3) cause the landslide.  

In relation to restoration, it is important to understand what groundworks may act to precondition slopes or trigger failure. 

Table 2. Preconditioning factors that influence the stability of a slope. 

Table 3. Triggers (natural and artificial) of peat mass movements, and their association with peatland restoration works.  

As part of research by Mills and Rushton (2023) (Research Report 1259 - A risk-based approach to peatland restoration and peat instability) completed on behalf of Peatland ACTION, a study was undertaken in order to evaluate the effects of restoration activities on the stability of some Peatland ACTION sites. 

A spatial database of Peatland ACTION project locations was reviewed against publicly available satellite imagery in Google EarthTM. The objectives were as follows:  

1.  To determine whether satellite data are of sufficient resolution to identify restoration work.  
2. To determine whether restored sites show any signs of accelerated geomorphological processes (such as erosion), pre-failure indicators (such as cracking or ground displacement) or peat landslides.  
3. To provide evidence-based context with which to evaluate the potential for restoration to precondition or trigger peat landslides.  

Sites considered comprised all Peatland ACTION projects since inception of the initiative in 2012 up to May 2019. 

Inspection of each site at maximum resolution (typically an “eye altitude” of c. 1 km) indicated the vast majority to show no signs of instability, landslides, drain offsets, tension cracks / tearing, enhanced erosion of gullies or drains, excessive ponding or waterlogging.  

Exceptions were: 

• A shallow landslide present between blocked drains in non-afforested blanket peatland (Caithness): inspection of historical satellite imagery indicated the failure to have taken place prior to drain blocking and therefore restoration was not likely to have been a contributory factor.  
• Margin failure of a restored lowland raised bog at Moss Band (Lanarkshire): this location was observed to have failed subsequent to restoration and was one of the events contributing to the request of the current study.  
• Margin failure of a restored lowland raised bog at Greenhead Moss (Lanarkshire): this failure occurred subsequent to restoration and also contributed to the request for this study. 

Since the report was completed, we also have received observations of: 

• Tensile cracking on the margin of an upland blanket bog on the Isle of Arran, where there was heavy rainfall following restoration works, saturating the ground, and where the drain pattern also focussed water.  Remedial action was taken and no further movement has occurred, even following further heavy rainfall events. 
• Cracking and slumping on a restored lowland raised bog at Black Loch Moss.  The site is not a Peatland ACTION site but has had restoration work carried out by other parties in the past.  An investigation into the causes of the failure indicated that it is unlikely that the restoration contributed to the failure, since the movement occurred some distance away from the main restoration interventions.  

From investigations so far, it is clear that although restoration has been carried out in a wide range of settings, from lowland raised bogs to hillslopes in blanket bog, ground instability is rarely observed, certainly in comparison to groundworks in other settings (such as quarrying, track or wind farm construction). 

Peatland ACTION Project Officers are available to help you with your project. Please contact us as at [email protected] to be put in touch with your local Officer.